Digital Subscriber Line

C H A P T E R Chapter Goals †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Identify and discuss different types of digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies. Discuss the benefits of using xDSL technologies. Explain how ASDL works. Explain the basic concepts of signaling and modulation. Discuss additional DSL technologies (SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDSL, IDSL, and VDSL). Digital Subscriber Line Introduction Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology is a modem technology that uses existing twisted-pair telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data, such as multimedia and video, to service subscribers. The term xDSL covers a number of similar yet competing forms of DSL technologies, including ADSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDL, IDSL, and VDSL. xDSL is drawing significant attention from implementers and service providers because it promises to deliver high-bandwidth data rates to dispersed locations with relatively small changes to the existing telco infrastructure. xDSL services are dedicated, point-to-point, public network access over twisted-pair copper wire on the local loop (last mile) between a network service provider’s (NSP) central office and the customer site, or on local loops created either intrabuilding or intracampus. Currently, most DSL deployments are ADSL, mainly delivered to residential customers. This chapter focus mainly on defining ADSL. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) technology is asymmetric. It allows more bandwidth downstream—from an NSP’s central office to the customer site—than upstream from the subscriber to the central office. This asymmetry, combined with always-on access (which eliminates call setup), makes ADSL ideal for Internet/intranet surfing, video-on-demand, and remote LAN access. Users of these applications typically download much more information than they send. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-1 Chapter 21 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line ADSL transmits more than 6 Mbps to a subscriber and as much as 640 kbps more in both directions (shown in Figure 21-1). Such rates expand existing access capacity by a factor of 50 or more without new cabling. ADSL can literally transform the existing public information network from one limited to voice, text, and low-resolution graphics to a powerful, ubiquitous system capable of bringing multimedia, including full-motion video, to every home this century. Figure 21-1 The Components of an ADSL Network Include a Telco and a CPE Core network Existing copper Server ADSL ADSL 1. 5 to 9 Mbps 16 to 640 kbps Internet ADSL connection ADSL will play a crucial role over the next decade or more as telephone companies enter new markets for delivering information in video and multimedia formats. New broadband cabling will take decades to reach all prospective subscribers. Success of these new services depends on reaching as many subscribers as possible during the first few years. By bringing movies, television, video catalogs, remote CD-ROMs, corporate LANs, and the Internet into homes and small businesses, ADSL will make these markets viable and profitable for telephone companies and application suppliers alike. ADSL Capabilities An ADSL circuit connects an ADSL modem on each end of a twisted-pair telephone line, creating three information channels: a high-speed downstream channel, a medium-speed duplex channel, and a basic telephone service channel. The basic telephone service channel is split off from the digital modem by filters, thus guaranteeing uninterrupted basic telephone service, even if ADSL fails. The high-speed channel ranges from 1. 5 to 9 Mbps, and duplex rates range from 16 to 640 kbps. Each channel can be submultiplexed to form multiple lower-rate channels. ADSL modems provide data rates consistent with North American T1 1. 544 Mbps and European E1 2. 048 Mbps digital hierarchies (see Figure 21-2), and can be purchased with various speed ranges and capabilities. The minimum configuration provides 1. 5 or 2. 0 Mbps downstream and a 16-kbps duplex channel; others provide rates of 6. 1 Mbps and 64 kbps for duplex. Products with downstream rates up to 8 Mbps and duplex rates up to 640 kbps are available today. ADSL modems accommodate Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) transport with variable rates and compensation for ATM overhead, as well as IP protocols. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-2 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Figure 21-2 This Chart Shows the Speeds for Downstream Bearer and Duplex Bearer Channels Downstream bearer channels n x 1. 536 Mbps 1. 536 Mbps 3. 072 Mbps 4. 608 Mbps 6. 144 Mbps 2. 048 Mbps 4. 096 Mbps x 2. 048 Mbps Duplex bearer channels C channel Optional channels 16 Kbps 64 Kbps 160 Kbps 384 Kbps 544 Kbps 576 Kbps Downstream data rates depend on a number of factors, including the length of the copper line, its wire gauge, the presence of bridged taps, and cross-coupled interference. Line attenuation increases with line length and frequency, and decreases as wire diameter increases. Ignoring bridged taps, ADSL perfo rms as shown in Table 21-1. Table 21-1 Claimed ADSL Physical-Media Performance Data Rate (Mbps) 1. 5 or 2 1. 5 or 2 6. 1 6. 1 Wire Gauge (AWG) 24 26 24 26 Distance (feet) 18,000 15,000 12,000 9,000 Wire Size (mm) 0. 5 0. 4 0. 5 0. 4 Distance (km) 5. 5 4. 6 3. 7 2. 7 Although the measure varies from telco to telco, these capabilities can cover up to 95 percent of a loop plant, depending on the desired data rate. Customers beyond these distances can be reached with fiber-based digital loop carrier (DLC) systems. As these DLC systems become commercially available, telephone companies can offer virtually ubiquitous access in a relatively short time. Many applications envisioned for ADSL involve digital compressed video. As a real-time signal, digital video cannot use link- or network-level error control procedures commonly found in data communications systems. Therefore, ADSL modems incorporate forward error correction that dramatically reduces errors caused by impulse noise. Error correction on a symbol-by-symbol basis also reduces errors caused by continuous noise coupled into a line. ADSL Technology ADSL depends on advanced digital signal processing and creative algorithms to squeeze so much information through twisted-pair telephone lines. In addition, many advances have been required in transformers, analog filters, and analog/digital (A/D) converters. Long telephone lines may attenuate signals at 1 MHz (the outer edge of the band used by ADSL) by as much as 90 dB, forcing analog sections of ADSL modems to work very hard to realize large dynamic ranges, separate channels, and Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-3 Chapter 21 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line maintain low noise figures. On the outside, ADSL looks simple—transparent synchronous data pipes at various data rates over ordinary telephone lines. The inside, where all the transistors work, is a miracle of modern technology. Figure 21-3 displays the ADSL transceiver-network end. Figure 21-3 This Diagram Provides an Overview of the Devices That Make Up the ADSL Transceiver-Network End of the Topology Downstream channel(s) Duplex channel(s) Mux Error control XMTR D/A and A/D Line coupler Channel separation (FDM or ECH) Basic telephone service splitter Line Demux Duplex channel(s) Error control RCVR Basic telephone service ADSL transceiver–network end (Premises end is mirror image) To create multiple channels, ADSL modems divide the available bandwidth of a telephone line in one of two ways: frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation, as shown in Figure 21-4. FDM assigns one band for upstream data and another band for downstream data. The downstream path is then divided by time-division multiplexing into one or more high-speed channels and one or more low-speed channels. The upstream path is also multiplexed into corresponding low-speed channels. Echo cancellation assigns the upstream band to overlap the downstream, and separates the two by means of local echo cancellation, a technique well known in V. 32 and V. 34 modems. With either technique, ADSL splits off a 4-kHz region for basic telephone service at the DC end of the band. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-4 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Signaling and Modulation Figure 21-4 ADSL Uses FDM and Echo Cancellation to Divide the Available Bandwidth for Services FDM Upstream Basic telephone service Downstream Frequency Echo cancellation Upstream Basic telephone service Downstream 1 Mhz Frequency 1 Mhz An ADSL modem organizes the aggregate data stream created by multiplexing downstream channels, duplex channels, and maintenance channels together into blocks, and it attaches an error correction code to each block. The receiver then corrects errors that occur during transmission, up to the limits implied by the code and the block length. At the user’s option, the unit also can create superblocks by interleaving data within subblocks; this allows the receiver to correct any combination of errors within a specific span of bits. This, in turn, allows for effective transmission of both data and video signals. Signaling and Modulation This section includes the following: †¢ †¢ CAP and DMT Modulated ADSL ADSL Standards and Associations CAP and DMT Modulated ADSL DMT and CAP are line-coding methods for modulating the electrical signals sent over the copper wire in the local loop. Carrierless Amplitude and Phase (CAP) is a common line-coding method. CAP is a well-understood technology because of its similarity with QAM. Although CAP is well-understood and relatively inexpensive, some argue that it is difficult to scale because it is a single-carrier modulation technique and is susceptible to narrowband interference. DMT uses multiple carriers. At this point, DMT is capable of more speed than CAP. This is one reason that the ANSI committee T1E1. accorded it standards status in document T1. 413. This standard calls for 256 subbands of 4 KHz each, thereby occupying 1. 024 GHz. Each subband can be modulated with QAM 64 for clean subbands, down to QPSK. If each of the subbands can support QAM-64 modulation, then the forward channel supports 6. 1 Mbps. On the return path are 32 subbands, with a potential for 1. 5 Mbps. Internetworking Technologies H andbook 1-58705-001-3 21-5 Chapter 21 Signaling and Modulation Digital Subscriber Line CAP and DMT Compared CAP is a single-carrier technique that uses a wide passband. DMT is a multiple-carrier technique that uses many narrowband channels. The two have a number of engineering differences, even though, ultimately, they can offer similar service to the network layers discussed previously. Adaptive Equalization Adaptive equalizers are amplifiers that shape frequency response to compensate for attenuation and phase error. Adaptive equalization requires that the modems learn line characteristics and do so by sending probes and looking at the return signals. The equalizer then knows how it must amplify signals to get a nice, flat frequency response. The greater the dynamic range, the more complex the equalization. ADSL requires 50 dB of dynamic range, complicating adaptive equalization. Only with recent advances in digital signal processing (number crunching) has it become possible to have such equalization in relatively small packaging. Adaptive equalization is required for CAP because noise characteristics vary significantly across the frequency passband. Adaptive equalization is not needed for DMT because noise characteristics do not vary across any given 4-KHz subband. A major issue in comparing DMT with CAP is determining the point at which the complexity of adaptive equalization surpasses the complexity of DMT’s multiple Fourier transform calculations. This is determined by further implementation experience. Power Consumption Although DMT clearly scales and does not need adaptive equalization, other factors must be considered. First, with 256 channels, DMT has a disadvantage regarding power consumption (and, therefore, cost) when compared with CAP. DMT has a high peak-to-average power ratio because the multiple carriers can constructively interfere to yield a strong signal. DMT has higher computational requirements, resulting in more transistors than the transceiver chips. Numbers are mostly proprietary at this point, but it is estimated that a single transceiver will consume 5 W of power, even with further advances. Power consumption is important because hundreds or thousands (as carriers dearly hope) of transceivers might be at the central office, or CEV. This would require much more heat dissipation than CAP requires. Latency Another issue for DMT is that latencies are somewhat higher than with CAP (15). Because each subband uses only 4 KHz, no bit can travel faster than permitted by a QAM-64. The trade-off between throughput and latency is a historical one in data communications and has normally been settled in the marketplace. Speed DMT appears to have the speed advantage over CAP. Because narrow carriers have relatively few equalization problems, more aggressive modulation techniques can be used on each channel. For CAP to achieve comparable bit rates, it might be necessary to use more bandwidth, far beyond 1 MHz. This creates new problems associated with high frequencies on wires and would reduce CAP’s current advantage in power consumption. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-6 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Additional DSL Technologies ADSL Standards and Associations The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Working Group T1E1. 4 recently approved an ADSL standard at rates up to 6. 1 Mbps (DMT/ANSI Standard T1. 413). The European Technical Standards Institute (ETSI) contributed an annex to T1. 413 to reflect European requirements. T1. 413 currently embodies a single terminal interface at the premises end. Issue II expands the standard to include a multiplexed interface at the premises end, protocols for configuration and network management, and other improvements. The ATM Forum and the Digital Audio-Visual Council (DAVIC) have both recognized ADSL as a physical layer transmission protocol for UTP media. Additional DSL Technologies This section discusses the following DSL technologies: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ SDSL HDSL HDSL-2 G. SHDSL ISDN Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) VDSL SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) is a rate-adaptive version of HDSL and, like HDSL, is symmetric. It allows equal bandwidth downstream from an NSP’s central office to the customer site as upstream from the subscriber to the central office. SDSL supports data only on a single line and does not support analog calls. SDSL uses 2B1Q line coding and can transmit up to 1. 54 Mbps to and from a subscriber, or can be configured to offer a variable range of bandwidth up to 1. 45 Mbps. The symmetry that SDSL offers, combined with always-on access (which eliminates call setup), makes it a favorable WAN technology for small to medium businesses and branch offices, and can be an affordable alternative to dedicated leased lines and Frame Relay services. Because traffic is symmetrical, file transfer, web hosting, and distance-learning applications can effectively be implemented with SDSL. HDSL Originally developed by Bellcore, high bit-rate DSL (HDSL)/T1/E1 technologies have been standardized by ANSI in the United States and by ETSI in Europe. The ANSI standard covers two-pair T1 transmission, with a data rate of 784 kbps on each twisted pair. ETSI standards exist both for a two-pair E1 system, with each pair carrying 1168 kbps, and a three-pair E1 system, with 784 kbps on each twisted pair. HDSL became popular because it is a better way of provisioning T1 or E1 over twisted-pair copper lines than the long-used technique known as Alternative Mark Inversion (AMI). HDSL uses less bandwidth and requires no repeaters up to the CSA range. By using adaptive line equalization and 2B1Q modulation, HDSL transmits 1. 544 Mbps or 2. 048 Mbps in bandwidth ranging from 80ntrast to the 1. 5 MHz required by AMI. (AMI is still the encoding protocol used for the majority of T1. ) Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-7 Chapter 21 Additional DSL Technologies Digital Subscriber Line T1 service can be installed in a day for less than $1,000 by installing HDSL modems at each end of the line. Installation via AMI costs much more and takes more time because of the requirement to add repeaters between the subscriber and the CO. Depending on the length of the line, the cost to add repeaters for AMI could be up to $5,000 and could take more than a week. HDSL is heavily used in cellular telephone buildouts. Traffic from the base station is backhauled to the CO using HDSL in more than 50 percent of installations. Currently, the vast majority of new T1 lines are provisioned with HDSL. However, because of the embedded base of AMI, less than 30 percent of existing T1 lines are provisioned with HDSL. HDSL does have drawbacks. First, no provision exists for analog voice because it uses the voice band. Second, ADSL achieves better speeds than HDSL because ADSL’s asymmetry deliberately keeps the crosstalk at one end of the line. Symmetric systems such as HDSL have crosstalk at both ends. HDSL-2 HDSL-2 is an emerging standard and a promising alternative to HDSL. The intention is to offer a symmetric service at T1 speeds using a single-wire pair rather than two pairs. This will enable it to operate for a larger potential audience. It will require more aggressive modulation, shorter distances (about 10,000 feet), and better phone lines. Much of the SDSL equipment in the market today uses the 2B1Q line code developed for Integrated Services Digital Network. The Bell companies have insisted that using this SDSL at speeds higher than 768 kbps can cause interference with voice and other services that are offered on copper wire within the same wire bundle. The biggest advantage of HDSL-2, which was developed to serve as a standard by which different vendors’ equipment could interoperate, is that it is designed not to interfere with other services. However, HDSL-2 is full rate only, offering services only at 1. 5 Mbps. G. SHDSL G. SHDSL is a standards-based, multirate version of HDSL-2 and offers symmetrical service. The advantage of HDSL-2, which was developed to serve as a standard by which different vendors’ equipment could interoperate, is that it is designed not to interfere with other services. However, the HDSL-2 standard addresses only services at 1. 5 Mbps. Multirate HDSL-2 is part of Issue 2 of the standard known as G. SHDSL, and is ratified by the ITU. G. SHDSL builds upon the benefits of HDSL-2 by offering symmetrical rates of 2. 3 Mbps. ISDN Digital Subscriber Line ISDN digital subscriber line (IDSL) is a cross between ISDN and xDSL. It is like ISDN in that it uses a single-wire pair to transmit full-duplex data at 128 kbps and at distances of up to RRD range. Like ISDN, IDSL uses a 2B1Q line code to enable transparent operation through the ISDN â€Å"U† interface. Finally, the user continues to use existing CPE (ISDN BRI terminal adapters, bridges, and routers) to make the CO connections. The big difference is from the carrier’s point-of-view. Unlike ISDN, ISDL does not connect through the voice switch. A new piece of data communications equipment terminates the ISDL connection and shuts it off to a router or data switch. This is a key feature because the overloading of central office voice switches by data users is a growing problem for telcos. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-8 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Summary The limitation of ISDL is that the customer no longer has access to ISDN signaling or voice services. But for Internet service providers, who do not provide a public voice service, ISDL is an interesting way of using POTS dial service to offer higher-speed Internet access, targeting the embedded base of more than five million ISDN users as an initial market. VDSL Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) transmits high-speed data over short reaches of twisted-pair copper telephone lines, with a range of speeds depending on actual line length. The maximum downstream rate under consideration is between 51 and 55 Mbps over lines up to 1000 feet (300 m) in length. Downstream speeds as low as 13 Mbps over lengths beyond 4000 feet (1500 m) are also common. Upstream rates in early models will be asymmetric, just like ADSL, at speeds from 1. 6 to 2. 3 Mbps. Both data channels will be separated in frequency from bands used for basic telephone service and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), enabling service providers to overlay VDSL on existing services. Currently, the two high-speed channels are also separated in frequency. As needs arise for higher-speed upstream channels or symmetric rates, VDSL systems may need to use echo cancellation. Summary ASDL technology is asymmetric, allowing more bandwidth for downstream than upstream data flow. This asymmetric technology combined with always-on access makes ASDL ideal for users who typically download much more data than they send. An ASDL modem is connected to both ends of a twisted-pair telephone line to create three information channels: a high-speed downstream channel, a medium-speed duplex channel, and a basic telephone service channel. ADSL modems create multiple channels by dividing the available bandwidth of a telephone line using either frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation. Both techniques split off a 4-kHz region for basic telephone service at the DC end of the band Synchronous Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) provides variable, symmetric, high-speed data communication up to 1. 54 Mbps. But SDSL doesn’t allow analog on the same line, as ADSL does. SDSL uses 2B1Q line coding, a technology employed in ISDN and T1 services. SDSL is a viable business option because of its capability to transmit high-speed data over longer distances from the CO and because of its ease of deployment made possible by its spectral compatibility. High Bit-Rate DSL (HDSL) is a symmetric version of DSL that uses 2B1Q like SDSL, but over two-wire pairs. HDSL is targeted at business deployment because it offers full-rate symmetrical 1. 5 Mbps service. HDSL-2 is a standards-based version of HDSL offering symmetrical 1. 5 Mbps service like HDSL, but with a single twisted pair of wires. HDSL is full-rate and does not offer variable rates. G. SHDSL does offer multirate service with symmetrical speeds of up to 2. 3 Mbps. ISDN digital subscriber line (IDSL) is similar in many ways to ISDN. The primary difference is that IDSL is always on and can reach speeds up to 512 kbps with compression. IDSL uses 2B1Q line coding and does not support analog. On the other hand, IDSL does allow data communications over longer distances than other DSL options (up to 26,000 feet) and is considerably less expensive than ISDN service, in most cases. Because IDSL supports existing ISDN CPE, it makes it easy to convert from ISDN to IDSL. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-9 Chapter 21 Review Questions Digital Subscriber Line Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) transmits high-speed data over short distances through twisted-pair copper telephone lines. VDSL technology is still in the definition stage, but additional research is required before it can be standardized. VSDL and ADSL are similar technologies. However, although VSDL transmits data at nearly 10 times the rate of ADSL, ADSL is the more complex transmission technology. Review Questions Q – Name the current versions of DSL technology. A – ADSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDL, IDSL, and VDSL. Q – What are the two-line coding methods used for ADSL? A – DMT and CAP. Q – Which versions of DSL offer symmetrical service? A – SDSL, HDSL, and HDSL-2. Q – What symmetrical version of DSL offers multirate service over a single pair of wire? A – G. SHDSL Q – How far of a reach can IDSL achieve from the CO? A – 26,000 feet. Q – What downstream and upstream rates are proposed for VDSL? A – The maximum downstream rate under consideration is between 51 and 55 Mbps over lines up to 1000 feet (300 m) in length. Downstream speeds as low as 13 Mbps over lengths beyond 4000 feet (1500 m) are also common. Upstream rates in early models will be asymmetric, just like ADSL, at speeds from 1. 6 to 2. 3 Mbps. For More Information ADSL Forum (http://www. adsl. com/) Cisco DSL Depot (http://www. isco. com/warp/public/779/servpro/promotions/dsldepot/) Glossary Terms †¢ G. SHDSL – Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line. The upstream data rate is different from the downstream (typically the downstream is greater than the upstream). It is applicable to many DSL technologies offered today; however, this term typically assumes DMT as defined in the ANSI T1. 413 specification. CPE – Customer premises equipment, including devices such as CSU/DSUs, modems, and ISDN terminal adapters, required to provide an electromagnetic termination for wide-area network circuits before connecting to the router or access server. This equipment was historically provided by the telephone company, but it is now typically provided by the customer in North American markets. †¢ Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-10 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Glossary Terms †¢ CSU/DSU – Channel service unit/data service unit. Provides electromagnetic termination of the digital (WAN) signal at the customer premises. Performs line conditioning and equalization functions, and responds to loopback commands sent from the central office. In North America, the customer supplies the device providing CSU/DSU functionality; outside North America, the telecommunications service provider usually provides this device. DMT – Discrete Multitone is the ANSI specified modulation technique for G. SHDSL (ANSI-T1. 413). DMT is theoretically capable of more speed than CAP. The key providers of DMT are Alcatel, Amati, Aware/ADI, and Orckit. Downstream – Refers to the transmission of data from the central office (CO or COE) to the customer premise equipment (CPE). HDSL – High-speed Digital Subscriber Line. This is a symmetrical modulation technique that uses two or three pairs of wires. HDSL2 – High-speed Digital Subscriber Line. This is a symmetrical modulation technique that can achieve speeds in the T1 (1. 5 Mbps) range using one copper pair. POTS – Plain old telephone service. QAM – Quadrature amplitude phase modulation. RG. SHDSL – Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line. This refers to the CAP2 and QAM technologies that use variable data rates to maximize the utilization of various loop lengths. SDSL – Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line. This indicates a subscriber line service that utilizes the same data rate for upstream and downstream. This term is applicable to MDSL and HDSL technologies. Upstream – Refers to the transmission of data from the customer premises equipment (CPE) to the central office equipment (CO or COE). VDSL – Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line. This is a high-speed asymmetrical service in the 10 to 25 Mbps range, typically limited to less than 5,000 feet. The targeted application for this technology is a hybrid fiber copper system (fiber to the neighborhood). †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-11 Chapter 21 Glossary Terms Digital Subscriber Line Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-12 1-58705-001-3

Adjustment Disorder Diagnosis and Treatment Essay

Adjustment Disorder Diagnosis and Treatment Adjustment disorder is a mental disorder that results from unhealthy responses to stressful or psychologically distressing events in life. This failure to adapt then leads to the development of emotional and behavioral symptoms. All age groups are affected by this disorder; and children have the same chance of developing the illness. While difficult to determine the causes of adjustment disorder, researchers suggest that genetics play a large part, as well as chemical changes in the brain, life experiences and mood. Some common stressor contributing to the disorder ncludes; the ending of a romantic relationship, loss of a Job, career change, an accident, relocating to a new area or loss of a loved one. (Mayo Clinic, 2010) An adjustment disorder causes feelings of depression, anxiousness, crying spells, sadness, desperation, lack of enjoyment, and some have reported experiencing thoughts of suicide. Additionally, the illness causes one to be unable to go about their normal routine or work and visit with friends and family. The lengths of symptoms vary from zero to six months (acute) and longer than six months (chronic). In the cases of acute adjustment disorder, symptoms can go away eventually; however, in chronic cases, symptoms begin to disrupt your life whereas, professional treatment is necessary to prevent the illness from worsening. Lastly, this disorder carries the possibility for abuse of alcohol and drugs, and eventually could result in violent behavior. According to a report issued by Tami Benton of WebMD, â€Å"the development of emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to an identifiable stressor(s) occurs within 3 months of the onset of the stressor(s). These symptoms or behaviors are linically significant, as evidenced by marked distress in excess of what is expected from exposure to the stressor, or significant impairment in social or occupational (academic) functioning. The stress-related disturbance does not meet criteria for another specific axis I disorder and is not merely an exacerbation of a preexisting axis I or axis II disorder. The symptoms do not represent bereavement. Once the stressor (or its consequences) has terminated, the symptoms do not persist for more than an additional 6 months†. A determination is made as to whether the illness is acute or chronic. A differential diagnosis issued by Benton states that, â€Å"Adjustment Disorder’s (AD) are located on a continuum between normal stress reactions and specific psychiatric disorders. Symptoms are not likely a normal reaction if the symptoms are moderately severe or if daily social or occupational functioning is impaired. If a specific stressor is involved and/or the symptoms are not specific but are severe, alternate diagnoses (eg, posttraumatic stress disorder, conduct disorder, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, depression or anxiety due to a general medical condition) are unlikely’. Benton, 2009) â€Å"Clinical treatment modalities are difficult due to lack of clinical trials; as these AD originates from a psychological reaction to a stressor, the stressor must be identified and communicated by the patient. The non-adaptive response to the stressor may be diminished if the stress can be â€Å"eliminated, reduced or accommodated. Therefore, treatment of ADS entails psychotherapeutic counseling aimed at reducing the stressor, improving coping ability with stressors that cannot be reduced or removed, and formatting an emotional state and support systems to enhance adaptation and coping. Further, the goal of psychotherapy should include; an analysis of the stressors that are affecting the patient, and determine whether they can be eliminated or minimized, clarification and interpretation of the meaning of the stressor for the patient, reframe the meaning of the stressor, illuminate the concerns and conflicts the patient experiences, identification of a means to reduce the stressor, maximize the patient’s coping skills, assist patients to gain perspective on the stressor, establish relationships, attend support groups, and manage themselves and the stressor. Psychotherapy, crisis intervention, family and group herapies, cognitive behavioral therapy, and interpersonal psychotherapy are effective for eliciting the expressions of affects, anxiety, helplessness, and hopelessness in relation to the identified stressor(s)†. (Benton, 2009) For patients with minor or major depressive disorders, who have not responded to psychotherapy and other interventions; trials of antidepressants are recommended.

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Environmental Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Environmental Factors - Research Paper Example Being a dominant player in the furniture industry, IKEA had assumed its duty of educating and training its workforce so that ethical trade practices and agreements are not ignored. It also educates and trains its supplier base to improve efficiency in operations. Not going by the traditional business practices, IKEA had always tried to differentiate itself through its unique and specific products and its cost leadership. This is achieved through its strategic and collaborative relations with its suppliers who are equivalent partners in profit sharing. It had marketed its products at lesser profit margins in developing and underdeveloped countries that wished to own Western furniture but could not afford. This has made it earn an image of a corporation that believes in equality and possession of products equally. Being a home furnishing brand, IKEA always needed big and spacious locations to arrange for its warehouses and showrooms. As such, it never set up full fledged assembling facilities in any nation. It always went for outsourcing decisions where by the use of skilled and expert people, parts and components were manufactured elsewhere while the assembling task was completed at the destination location. Also it had communicated its product range across nations that match the perceptual structure of the residents. For US citizens, its furniture is stylish and stable, while for China, it is homely and giving a feeling of togetherness. Culture is something that cannot be created. It has to be learned and percolated down to ages. IKEA had been very strategic in weaving a story around itself every time it entered in a new market and aligned its marketing campaign accordingly. It had varied the sensibility of its marketing significantly across varying cultures. For instance, its European advertisements are more straight-forward unlike North-Americans, which are more witty. Cultural differences also arise

What does it mean to adhere to a monotheistic theology in Judaism, Essay

What does it mean to adhere to a monotheistic theology in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, other than a basic belief in a unique and singular agent pre-existent and uncreated deity. Compare and contrast - Essay Example Additionally, the differences and similarities in the three religions portray the varied way in which each approach the concept of monotheism as the discussion below portrays. Al the three religions believe in the existence of God, a supernatural being who created the earth and therefore controls all the activities. The three religions contend in the position and role of God. Such is therefore a paramount similarity in the three religions thus upholding the values of monotheism as discussed earlier. The religions present God as the all-knowing and ever present but just and fair being who accords everyone space and time to act independently thus enjoy life on earth. The doctrines of the religions uphold and respect the position of God whose works and manifestations occur at varied levels. Another equally important similarity of the three religions is the existence of canons that detest sin. The religions have holy books that records and outline the position of God thus providing the adherents with a systematic way of interacting with God at varied levels. Christians have a bible while the Muslims have the holy Quran. Such are essential books that outline the relationship between God and humans besides providing the specific religious values. In the three religions, God provide a list of testaments that guide human behavior. Through the commandments, God doe not only influence the interaction among humans but also between humans and Himself. Christianity introduces a concept of the holy trinity. While the religion remains monotheist, it has the position of two other important beings who enjoy God’s glory. He three thus appears as one. The Holy Spirit is part of the holy trinity, this refers to the spirit that guides the adherents of the faith on a daily basis, Jesus Christ is the son of God who came down to earth to share

Japanese Colonialism Was no Different to Western Colonialism Essay

Japanese Colonialism Was no Different to Western Colonialism - Essay Example Although, Japanese and British colonialism took place during the same period, their colonial policies were quite different in some aspects while similar in other. The major areas in which Japan and Britain formed its colonies were significantly different. The regions where the Japanese were the most dominant in their colonial rule are Korea, Taiwan and Philippines. Whereas the British rule was prevalent in Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Their policies seemed significantly different in some aspects, yet somehow similar in others. The basic difference in the policies of these colonial powers was their aim of colonization. The colonization by Japanese aimed at extending the Japanese empire in various parts of the world. Whereas the British aimed to give independence to its colonies whenever the need arises. Their policies relating to laws, rule and regulations and economic development were significantly different. In areas of managing cultural diversity and education, their policie s were quite similar. Japanese wanted to rule its colonies directly while the British supported the idea of indirect rule. In Africa, British let the African leaders to carry out their judicial and executive functions with the support of British officials. The British were in favor of indirect rule as they did not have to spend money in order to recreate the constitutional framework and hiring and firing of government employees. By letting the native leaders to continue carrying their functions, the British were able to save manpower and money. They gave a high degree of autonomy and strength to native authorities. In areas where there was one ethnic group, the local customary laws seemed to work. In areas where there were many ethnic groups, the British made councils which were made up of the natives who were the educated elite. These councils were in the supervision of British. It seemed that British were more interested in reaping the economic benefits from the region rather than in governing it (Kenneth A. Schultz and Alexander Lee). On the other hand, the Japanese installed new governments in which the governor generals were in charge of controlling the law and accommodating the needs of the native Koreans and Taiwanese. The legal system was extremely discriminatory against native populations in the colonies. Koreans ,who had gained education could participate in government, were given fewer rights than Japanese. The natives did not have the same level of protection under Japanese law as the Japanese did and were not given the right to elect their government. This kind of discrimination was practiced in order to make the colonial subjects so weak that they are unable to rebel against the colonial powers. Later the education system was also designed as such that the colonial subjects were not provided that level of education which would lead to a rebellion or at least empowerment of the colonial subjects. The Japanese aimed to have a controlled empire whic h would be controlled from Tokyo and the laws would be no different from those which govern the original Japanese nation. Initially, the local laws were kept intact and the Supreme court in Japan had no control over those in Taiwan and Korea. The impression was given that the judiciary will remain independent of the parent company’s laws. In reality, this initiative was just taken in order to win the support of

Social Performance, Part 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Performance, Part 2 - Essay Example This ensures that the company operates within the given guidelines. It is noteworthy that these guidelines are set under the federal sentencing guidelines for organizations. Every company should observe these guidelines whilst undertaking its operations. The federal sentencing guidelines are a set of rules, which enforces standardized sentencing policy to individuals and organizations condemned of criminal offences. These rules were set in the United States federal court system (Davidson, 2005). These set rules and regulations are only applicable to serious crimes, and offences. In this regard, the less serious crimes are excluded from these regulations. The primary goal for these guidelines aims at alleviating sentencing inequalities rampant in the established sentencing system. The guidelines promote the development of effective programs by the company in an effort to prevent and identify law violation and set steps for facilitating the program. Companies, therefore, should have se t codes of conduct to be followed to avoid and minimize violation of laws. This will improve the reputation of the company. The code of conduct is a system of behavior followed for maintenance and promotion of company’s dignity and reputation. Romco Company has set codes of conducts, which should be adhered to by its stakeholders including executives, board of directors, directors, company secretary, staff, and other employees. Each company has its own set codes of conduct, the codes of conduct are unique for each company, and thus, there is no uniformity or standardized codes of company. The freedom accorded to these companies have contributed to problems in the way companies operates this is because some misuse it by setting codes for the sake of personal greed and interest. Romco’s competitors are examples of companies with codes of conduct, which do not put into consideration the interest of its customers and competitors. Angels, Ramal, and Queens Companies fall in the same industry with Romco. The codes of these three companies are, however, different and do not agree with those of Romco. The directors of these companies are superior as decision-making is centered. They do not consult other stakeholders as they have a final say, and thus, they make decisions based on their personal gains and interest without considering other employees. Honesty and transparency among the directors are not observed, and thus, the allocation of resources to different departments is not uniform, hence affecting operations of the company. These companies have constantly become the victims of the federal sentencing guidelines. This is because of their failure to complying with the basic laws, regulations, and rules. In addition, they have failed to establish the appropriate business ethics and code of conduct appropriate for corporate governance. Ramco, unlike its competitors, have set rules of conduct, which are adhered to, and strictly observed by the parties i nvolved in the company. The interests of various stakeholders that are significant for the growth and success of the company should be considered. Romco has managed to achieve this role. Decision making in the company is reached by involving all participants. In this case, the decisions do not lie in the hands of directors, and managers, the decision-making is decentralized. The directors of Ramco execute their duties with fairness, honesty, and transparency. They are required to perform their duties professionally, with determination and

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect Research Paper

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect - Research Paper Example Similarly, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another mental disorder that is occasioned by constant violent events in the life of an officer. Members of the police service are likely to come across such incidents during the course of their practice. For instance, constant exposure bloodshed, deaths and inhuman treatment of some members of a community are likely to trigger PTSD in police officers. Symptoms of PTSD may encompass flashbacks, hallucinations and severe nervousness as well as irrepressible imaginations about the occurrence. Many police officers who experience traumatic occurrences such as bloodshed often have difficulty coping after such incidents, but they do not have PTSD. However, over time and with good self-care, such officers usually recover. But in the event that the symptoms degenerate into worse episodes running for many months or even years, to an extent that they impede the normal functioning of the brain, the agents in question may develop PTSD (French, & Parkinson, 2008). As such, providing the officers with appropriate care immediately they show symptoms of TBI and or PTSD can be an important to control of the symptoms and the subsequent improvement of the normal functioning of the brain. A police agent may develop PTSD after an episode of TBI or after experiencing a violent incident happen to a third party or after being subjected to long periods of distress that he or she could not withstand (Miller, 2006). Unlike TBI which is caused by physical shock to the head and brain during police training or in actual law enforcement processes, PTSD is caused by two primary factors: first, the public perceptions about a violent mission in which police officers had a hand, especially since the media criticism of police actions became commonplace in the 21st century. The negative perceptions the public have on the police can be one

Final project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Final project - Essay Example Food products have a natural taste because they are manufactured from natural plants. The products will be made available in two major hotels including Tiran Island Hotel and Sharm el Sheikh. They will also be made available in shopping malls like City Stars Mall located in Cairo City. Hotel services include accommodation and dishes for the ordinary family. AS noted earlier on, the two hotels include Tiran Island Hotel and Sharm el Sheikh. A family has an option of selecting hotel services of their choice especially families that are on a holiday. Hotel charges are based on the duration and packages selected by a family. For instance, a family may select to spend a night or have a meal only. The tour service component in the perfect package will aim at taking families on a visit to tourist attraction sites like the Nile River in Cairo, Giza Pyramids, Sphinx, Memphis, Sakkara and Tiran Island. Families will enjoy services such as dinner cruises and private visits to the mentioned places in Egypt. In most cases, the tours will involve the use of cars in the cars of land tours and boats in the case of marine tours. The perfect package also includes video games where children will be involved in playing their favorite computer games. Children are allowed to rent video games at a charge and are also allowed to carry their own games but on a restricted basis. Below are their pricing levels for the different services and products: Some components of the perfect package such as food products are available in retail stores. Customers can also place their orders online for products and book services such as hotel and transport services. The family market segment is one of the most attractive segments in the global market for products. Research studies indicate that most of the businesses ranging from retail to wholesale at least consider the family as one of their target markets. This is because such a market segment entails different

Research Methodological Approaches Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Research Methodological Approaches - Essay Example The nature of research being done dictates the type and kind of methodology which is to be employed. This is in terms of the data collection and analysis. For example, in collecting qualitative data, the researcher will probably be measuring variables and using them to verify existing theories and question hypotheses. In some instances, data is used in coming up with a new set of hypothesis based on the results of a given study. Since every research may be unique in its own way, it is common to find different methodologies being used. Segon & Booth points out that the collection of data or statistics is not the answer to understanding an underlying meaning in a study. It is the type of data obtained and how it is analyzed that will help in understanding meanings, experiences, theories, and beliefs. Data collection is always done in accordance with specific research vehicles guided by the underlying questions for that given study. This treatise looks into the various research methods which are used in academic journals. This is done by reviewing, evaluating and analyzing the methodological approaches which are used in thirty-five different studies. According to of Benedict & Gupta, different academic scholars use diverse methodological approaches to carrying out their studies. The various methodologies can generally be grouped into three major groups. These are qualitative, quantitative and quantitative research methods. Tsikata defines qualitative research as a method of inquiry which is used in academic studies with the aim of gathering the in-depth understanding of a given behavior. The method is important in helping understand the reasons behind such behavior and trends. The qualitative research investigates not only why and how a given behavior is, but also where and when it takes place. Getnet remarks that, in most instances, focused samples are used. In other studies like Tsikata, a larger sample can also be used depending on the trend being studied, and the research questions being investigated. Significant quantities of literature suggest that qualitative methodologies produce information on specific cases. On the basis of the particular subject being studied, general conclusions can be drawn. Such conclusions are referred to as informed assertions.

Publius Virgilius Maro Essay Example for Free

Publius Virgilius Maro Essay Aside from Christianity there is no other force that shaped Western civilization other than the Greco-Roman culture. And there is no better representation of that period in history other than Rome and Publius Viirgilius Maro, also known as Virgil. A closer examination of Virgil and his works made many to realize that Virgil was a byproduct of events and it is the twin forces of the Roman Empire and Greek history that prompted Virgil to write. This paper will look into the two factors that influenced the writing of Publius Virgilius Maro. This can be done by looking first at the events that transpired before Virgil began writing and this means tracing back Greek and Roman history. The second way of knowing the connection between history and Virgils writings is to dig into his works and of course this means analyzing the Aeneid. It will be shown later that it is Roman history and Homer that shaped Virgil to become the writer that he was destined to be. Rome After more than two thousand years the world is still mesmerized by Rome. It is because of its legacy, it military prowess, and form of government. Rome was without equal when it comes to how it help shape Western history. Yet in the early days of Roman history there is not much to see. There is nothing that could make an outsider ascertain its potential to be a dominant ruler of known world in antiquity. Ting Morris traced its early development in obscurity and he remarked, â€Å"Rome began around 2,800 years ago as a few small settlements on wooded hills overlooking the Tiber River† (4). But then Rome began to distance itself from the Latin communities from which it was supposed to be a part of. What happens next began a series of development that will catapult this small community into the world map, â€Å"†¦the roman Republic conquered first Latium, then all of Italy. The Romans annexed much foreign territory to their own state, but they also established a system of alliances with all other states. This gave the Romans a vast reserve of manpower that allowed them to overthrow every major power in the Mediterranean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mackay, 40). A new age has come and a new military superpower was born. But when the Romans began to assimilate remnants of Alexanders Empire, the new European power came face to face with an ancient civilization whose insight into religion, politics, and philosophy was far ahead of its time. In short the Romans, â€Å" recognized something in Greek culture that was more impressive than anything Rome itself achieved, in spite of Romes unprecedented military success† (Cox). At this point Rome was all brute force. Yes the soldiers led by the Caesars were brave, strong and are very eager to make their mark in the battlefield but when it comes to culture, the Romans were barbarians compared to the Greeks. The Romans discovered an effective methodology in fighting wars and they even had the distinct advantage of knowing how to build an empire out of disparate tribes and nations. They were experts in campaigns that require traveling far from home and yet they lack one more thing. They did not have a good system that can be put in place after victory. This is similar to the idea that it is easy to start a war but the more difficult thing to do is how to end it. So when Rome began to feel the success of empire building the more that they felt the need for a way of life that will enhance their reputation in Europe while at the same time offer them an opportunity to enjoy life more. They found the answer from the sophisticated Greeks. Virgil The Romans had to learn from the Greeks and their history can be characterized not only by empire building but also by the why they incorporated Greek thought and the Greek’s way of life into their own unique system. Now there is none better who understood the need for assimilating Greek culture than the Roman intellectuals of that time. In fact, â€Å"Among the adaptors of Greek culture, none was more brilliant than the poet Virgil. He faced a formidable challenge. Everyone who encountered Greek culture recognized how much it was shaped by Homer† (Cox). This means that there is a great need to surpass Homer and if this is not possible then at least equal Homer’s genius. If this can be achieved then the Romans had done something which other Greek imitators failed to do and that is to provide a great explanation for their existence. A myth has to be created, a legend has to be made and the purpose for such an endeavor is obvious. There is a need for something that will hold the empire together. At the time of writing the Aeneid, Rome was again in the cusp of revolution. Julius Caesar was defeated by Augustus Caesar and so steps must be made to consolidate his power and to strengthen the arm of the new emperor. For a brilliant man like Virgil, times like this one is an opportunity that must be grabbed by both hands. Virgil proceeded to hit two birds with one stone. First he would write an epic that will explain the origins of Rome. He will do so by using stories that are already familiar among the people that he wants to see united under Augustus Caesar and during that time there was no other story quite like the one weaved by Homer centuries before. Virgil saw that epic struggle for good and evil; battles between heroes; and the self-sacrificial behavior of some heroes simply because they believe in something higher than themselves proved to be a formula hard to resist. Virgil was ready to accept the challenge. But it is clear from the beginning that it would not be an easy task. Aside from that Homer is a world unto itself. And as they say there is no way one can improve on perfection, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the blueprints for creating great epics and so what else can be done to make it better. Virgil was able to solve this problem by being inventive and by starting where Homer ended his story. When Troy fell, one of her sons went on to build another kingdom. But then again Virgil cannot escape the past. Virgil could not resist using a successful formula. As they say there is no need to fix what was broken. Judging from the power of the Iliad and the Odyssey to move people it is almost impossible not to use the same method and technique of telling a great story. And so Virgil copied many ideas from Homer. In the introduction to the Aeneid Levi Robert pointed out that: Virgil borrowed from Homer a great many items: his verse form, the division into twelve books, mythology, many episodes and similes. In the Aeneid Venus doubles for Nausicaa, Dido for Calypso and Circe, and Drances for Thersites. The funeral games the desecent into Hades, where Aeneas meets Dido as Odysseus met Ajax, the prophecy of Anchises, the catalogue of ships, Turnus attempt to burn them, a broken truce †¦ a quarrel of two Italian leaders †¦ and a final single combat (Robert, xiii). Aeneid The Aeneid is basically the story of Aeneas, the god-like leader of a band of Trojan refugees fleeing to Italy after the fall of Troy. In the beginning, Aeneas built a fleet with the goal in mind of settling in a foreign land and to finally establish a new nation of Trojans. In Virgil’s mind, he wanted the world to understand the basis for the establishment of the Roman Empire. And there is nothing as perfect as that. Hornstein, Percy and Brown’s book, The Reader’s Companion to World Literature, was very helpful in understanding the context from which Virgils Aeneid was written, and they said that it was written at a time of conflict. Italy was ravaged by more than fifty years of revolution and civil war. When the long-sought peace came, a new form of government was fashioned from a battle weary nation. And with the new set-up, ultimate power was in the hands of one man- Augustus Caesar. It was during this time that the Roman Virgil began working on the Aeneid. Hornstein, Brown and Percy wrote: Vergil began the poem in 29 B. C. , two years after the battle of Actium brought this period of civil war to an end. He had long been preparing for the task. His purpose was national: he desired to glorify the Roman people by his theme and exalt the Emperor in the person of his hero. (5) Homer Putnam acknowledge that Virgil is under the towering shadow of Homer when he made this judgment, â€Å"Homer himself, against whose essential insights into humanity, Virgil’s own achievement will always be measured. † Homer’s success allowed him to set the standard upon which others who will come after him will be forced to measure up. Allen Mandelbaum tells of how his previous study prevented him from fully appreciating Virgil’s works and he said, â€Å"One was a tag line of mark Van Doren that echoed through my youth with tenacious resonance: ‘Homer is a world; Virgil, a style’. † It also did not help that the critics saw Virgil as copying Homer, Gaskell said, â€Å"The overall plan of Virgil’s epic was plainly Homeric, with its main elements reversed: now the odyssey of the man comes first and the armed fighting follows it: but the Homeric parallels are many and obvious. † (161). The only major difference was that Homer was illiterate and therefore had to express the beauty of his poetry in oral reform. On the other hand Virgil was literate and he could study Homers Iliad and Odyssey in written form as well as compose his own epic and was able to write it down. This explains the difference in style but all the more strengthens the view that Virgil was strongly influenced by Homer. Conclusion Now the pieces of the puzzle begin to fall down into its proper places and one can now see the bigger picture. It was mentioned earlier that it was in 168 BC when the Romans began to conquer the remnants of Alexanders Empire and it is through the conquest of former Greek states that the Romans saw first hand the beauty that was Greece. In short the highly militaristic Romans lacked the cultural refinements that one can find in abundance in Greek societies. It is through the process of incorporating Greek culture into the Romans way of life that they rediscovered the power of Homeric poetry. It took the genius of Virgil to use Homers works and use it as the foundation for his own epic. And so in 29 BC Virgil began writing the Aeneid with the purpose of emulating what Homer has achieved in Greece. Homers Iliad and Odyssey provided a sense of identity for all Greeks and Virgil was hoping to achieve the same results. But the desire to incorporate Greek life into Roman life is easier said than done. But everyone who will try to copy from someone begins by copying almost everything that one can see and the eye can appreciate. For instance the Romans copied the design of their temples and they also described their gods using the same attributes found in Greek society. But there is no need to worry because the Roman changed the Greek sounding names of their gods into Roman names for their statues. Virgil attempted to accomplish two major things when he wrote the Aeneid. He wanted to impress the new emperor (Augustus Caesar) and secondly he wanted to have a unique Roman epic that will help unite the people. Virgil was successful in achieving both. The hero of the Aeneid was behaving in much the same way as Augustus Caesar especially with regards to his conquest and the subsequent creation of a new nation out of that sheer determination to succeed. Now for the second part, Virgil was also able to create an epic that can be comparable to Homer. It is true that he copied many things from Homer and yet at the same time his stories were never simply a rehash of what Homer did. Virgil simply needed an inspiration to get going and he found it in the character of Aeneas whom Homer briefly mentioned in his work. From this little known character, Aeneid began to build a story that made the peoples pulse to race. It was indeed an epic story of battles, of struggle between good and evil, of heroes who most of the time failed to achieve their potential and sometimes die a tragic death. The Aeneid is basically an explanation as to the existence of Rome. For many there is a need to have that kind of idea, that kind of emotional anchor in times of trouble. And there is no way to fully understand the impact of Aeneid towards the people of Rome. But one thing is sure Virgil’s work was able to unite the whole of the empire and is instrumental as to why the empire endured for so long. It is now very clear that that Virgil was influenced by historical events and the circumstances that surrounded his life. If there were two streams where these influences came from then Homer is a mighty source of inspiration while the politics and warfare in ancient Rome provided Virgil with more materials to use. In Rome’s struggle to carve out a nation in Europe was evident in Aeneid where the hero had to travel and faced with numerous risks just so he can establish a new nation. It was Homer who provided much influence for Virgil. If Homer did not produce the Iliad and Odyssey it is hard to imagine Virgil able to make his own. This is not to take away anything form the accomplishments of Virgil but it would be almost impossible for him to write beautifully without Homer as guide. Homer did not only provide the seed from which Virgil will grow a powerful story, Homer also provided the correct format. And so putting it all together it is now very clear that Virgil was a byproduct of the events that surrounded him. Yet even before he was born, Homer’s influence and genius was already felt in many parts of the Western world. When Virgil was still very young it is easy to imagine that he was already familiar with the Iliad and Odyssey and no doubt the stories found in those epics help to shape the way he thinks. Works Cited Appelbaum, Stanley. Ed. â€Å"The Aeneid by Vergil† Trans. Charles J. Billson. Canada: Dover Publications, 1995. Cox, John. Introduction to Virgil, The Aeneid. 2008. General Education at Hope College. 03 April 2008. http://www. hope. edu/academic/ids/171/Aeneid. html Gaskell, Philip. Ed. â€Å"Landmarks in Classical Literature† Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999. Hemminger, Bill. Exploring Ancient World Cultures: Rome. 1997. EAWC at University of Evansville. 02 April 2008. http://eawc. evansville. edu/ropage. htm Hornstein, L. H. , G. D. Percy, and Calvin S. Brown. Eds. â€Å"The Reader’s Companion to World Literature† New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. , 1973. Knight, G. R. Wilson. Trans. â€Å"The Aeneid by Virgil† New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. , 1956. Mackay, Christopher. â€Å"Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. † New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Mandelbaum, Allen. Trans. â€Å"The Aeneid by Virgil† California: University of California Press, 1971. Morford, Mark P. O. and Robert J. Lenardon. â€Å"Classical Mythology† 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Morris, Ting. â€Å"Ancient Rome. † MN: Smart Apple Media, 2007.

Top 5 Environmental Issues Essay Example for Free

Top 5 Environmental Issues Essay 1. Population Explosion Whether we like to admit it or not, our very own rapidly multiplying presence on this planet is the biggest environmental problem there is, and it’s getting bigger by the minute. We voraciously consume resources, pollute the air and water, tear down natural habitats, introduce species into areas where they don’t belong and destroy ecosystems to the point of causing millions of species to become endangered and, all too often, go extinct. It took nearly all of human history – from the first days of man on earth until the early 1800’s – to reach a global population of 1 billion. In just 200 years, we’ve managed to reach 6.5 billion. That means the population has grown more since 1950 than in the previous four million years. We’re adding roughly 74 million people to the planet every year, a scary figure that will probably continue to increase. All of those mouths will need to be fed. All of those bodies will need clean water and a place to sleep. All of the new communities created to house those people will continue to encroach upon the natural world. 2. CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere Greenhouse gas emissions caused by our modern way of life – vehicles, power plants, factories, giant livestock farms – will bring devastating climate change within decades if they stay at today’s levels. Average temperatures could increase by as much as 12 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century if emissions continue to rise, a figure that would easily make the world virtually uninhabitable for humans. A global temperature rise of just 7.2 degrees Fahrenheit would cause a catastrophic domino effect, bringing weather extremes that would result in food and water shortages and destructive floods. The most recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change represents â€Å"the final nail in the coffin† of climate change denial, representing the most authoritative picture to date that global warming is caused by human activity. According to the panel, we must make a swift and significant switch to clean, efficient and renewable energy technolog ies in order to prevent the worst-case scenario. 3. Polar Sea Ice Loss Polar sea ice is melting at an unprecedented rate, and it’s not showing any signs of slowing down. It’s perhaps the most dramatic, startling visual evidence of global warming, and it’s got scientists rushing to figure out just how big of an effect the melting is going to have on the rest of the world. British researchers said that the thickness of sea ice in the Arctic decreased dramatically last winter for the first time since records began in the early 1990s. The research showed a significant loss in thickness on the northern ice cap after the record loss of ice during the summer of 2007. Scientific American warns that â€Å"human fingerprints have been detected† on both the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Antarctica had previously appeared to be the only continent on the planet where humanity’s impact on climate change hadn’t been observed. The collapse of the Larsen B and Wilkins ice shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula shows just how fast th e region is warming. 4. Destruction of the Rain Forest ‘Saving the rain forest’ has been at the forefront of the environmental movement for decades, yet here we are facing huge losses in the Amazon all the same. You might have thought that, with all the attention the rain forest has gotten, it wouldn’t need so much saving anymore – but unfortunately, global warming and deforestation mean that half of the Amazon rain forest will likely be destroyed or severely damaged by 2030. The World Wildlife Fund concluded this summer that agriculture, drought, fire, logging and livestock ranching will cause major damage to 55 percent of the Amazon rain forest in the next 22 years. Another 4 percent will see damage due to reduced rainfall, courtesy of global warming. These factors will destroy up to 80 percent of the rain forest’s wildlife. Losing 60 percent of the rain forest would accelerate global warming and affect rainfall in places as far away as India. Massive destruction to the rain forest would have a domino effect on the rest of the world. The WWF says that the ‘point of no return’, from which recovery will be impossible, is only 15 to 25 years away. 5. Mammal Extinction One in four mammals is threatened with extinction. That’s 25%, a huge number that will totally change the ecology of every corner of the earth. We could see thousands of species die out in our lifetime, and the rate of habitat loss and hunting in crucial areas like Southeast Asia, Central Africa and Central and South America is growing so rapidly, these animals barely have a chance. If you think the extinction of an animal like the beautiful Iberian Lynx is no big deal, and wouldn’t have that much of an effect on the planet, think again. Not only would we be losing – mostly due to our own disregard for our surroundings – so much of the awe-inspiring diversity of nature, mass extinctions like this would cause a serious imbalance in the world’s food chain. When a predator disappears, the prey will multiply. When prey dies out, the predator will see its ranks decrease as well. Many people fail to realize just how interconnected all species on this plan et really are.

Six Sigma Concepts in OPD: Process Mapping and Waiting Time

Six Sigma Concepts in OPD: Process Mapping and Waiting Time Study on Process mapping, Waiting Time Based on  Six Sigma Concepts in OPD Dr Geetika Verma Dr Geetika Verma, Management Trainee, Department of Patient Care Services, Fortis Memorial Research Institute, Gurgaon. Abstract This study focuses on to identify the various procedures at the outpatient clinic as well as to investigate the possible operational problems that may lead to excessive patients’ waiting time. A patients’ experience in waiting time will radically influence his / her perceptions on quality of the service. The study was carried out in Fortis Memorial Research Institute, Gurgaon (Haryana) for three months. The subjects were outpatients who came to the outpatient clinic in FMRI. Data was analysed using the six sigma approach.Significant reduction in waiting time was achieved in the outpatient services of department by using the six sigma approach. Doctors were on time in OPD to reduce the delay in the OPD. Patients were coordinated well to the doctors. Keywords: ‘Lean Six Sigma’, ‘Waiting time’, ‘Process mapping’ Introduction Patients’ waiting time has been defined as â€Å"the length of time from when the patient entered the outpatient clinic to the time the patient actually received his or her perception†. Process mapping is a workflow diagram to bring forth a clearer understanding of a process or series of parallel processes. It views the system from the patient perspective following their journey across organisational boundaries. It helps staff understand how complex and confusing processes appear to the patient. It is organisation specific. It is diagnostic and used as a basis for redesign, actively involving frontline staff in the process. (Shows how things actually are). Fig. 1: Patient Process Aim Of the Study The two main objectives of the study were: To study the patients’ waiting time in the outpatient clinic, with a view to identify the factors that affect waiting time and recommend ways of minimising the delay To use the six sigma technique to identify the delay and improve management capabilities. Research Scope This research was done at the outpatient clinic in FMRI. The research methods chosen were to: Directly observe the patients. Interview the patients. Interview the people involved in managing the work process. Literature Research WAITING TIME Defined as the total time from registration until consultation with a doctor. REGISTERATION TIME Defined as waiting time from the moment patients submit a clinic card or referral letters at the counter until getting a call from the counter. During this time the payment process and record classification are made. Registration time is part of patient’s waiting time. SIX SIGMA First introduced by Motorola in 1986, Six sigma is a method to measure the quality of a process to fulfil customers’ needs which approaches perfection. Data and statistical analysis were used to identify defects in processes and reduce variation. With Six sigma, defects in a process can be measured by identifying the best method to eliminate defects and approach ‘zero defect’. Customers’ satisfaction is the main factor. A new and more effective method has to be adopted to ensure customers’ satisfaction. Six Sigma specifies a very high standard of quality achievement. It utilizes a variety of existing project management, statistical and analytical tools. Several toolkits of the six sigma were applied during this study: Descriptive statistics Statistical image shows characteristics of collected data. At this level, data will be presented using the best presentation tools such as histogram, pie charts or others. Flow chart Chart shows description and sequence of the process done. Cause and effect diagram Diagram shows the relationship of a cause that gives rise to a certain problem. Methodology MEASURABLES 1.Total waiting time for the consultation. 2.Time taken for Investigations. SAMPLE SIZE This study conducted at the outpatient clinic, FMRI, was an exploratory and evaluation study. Respondents of this study were selected patients, staffs and doctors at the outpatient clinic. Table 1: Sample Size Retrospective data of 4500 patients was analysed for waiting time during the period August- October 2013. Voice Of Patients was obtained from 150 patients. TYPE OF DATA AND COLLECTION METHODS Several variables monitored in this study were data on patients’ waiting time work process, number of doctors available and number of staffs at the registration counter. Three major collection methods were used in the study: The first method was observation. Data were collected through direct observation on the subjects involved in the various working processes in FMRI. Measurements of time spent from registration until consultation by a doctor were made using a stopwatch. The second method is through interview. In carrying out this research, some of the management staff and doctors were interviewed to obtain information on the working process in the hospital. Voice of patients (VOP) was obtained using standardized questionnaire. DMAIC METHOD (DEFINE-MEASURE-ANALYSIS-IMPROVE-CONTROL) The Six Sigma method which consists of the five steps of: Define Measure Analysis Improve Control (DMAIC) is the roadmap to achieve the objectives of this study. DMAIC STEPS Fig. 2: DMAIC Steps PROCESS FLOW IN FMRI OPD: Fig 3: Outpatient Flow Study was carried out in the GENERAL OPD FMRI Outpatients of 50 per day. Simple Random sampling was followed. Period of Study – AUGUST 2013 TO NOVEMBER 2013. STATISTICAL TOOLS 1. Process Map-Flow Chart that shows description and sequence of the process done. 2. Cause and Effect Diagram Diagram that shows the relationship of a cause that gives rise to a certain problem. 3. Affinity Diagram- Business tool used to organize ideas and data. 4. Descriptive statistics- Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way. Results And Conclusion DEFINE This is the first step that refers to defining the goals of the project. Process improvement goals may be aimed at increasing market share, the output of a particular department, bringing about improved employee satisfaction as well as customer satisfaction and so on. The goal has to align the patient demands and the strategic goals of the organization. Data mining methods can be used to find prospective ideas for project implementation. In other words, businesses are designing a road map for achieving the targets and goals of the organization. Problem Statement: Three months retrospective data from the department indicates that in August 2013 only 66.64% of patients were seen within 15 minutes by the physician. In September 2013 this decreased marginally to 59.68% and in October 2013 this was found to be 61.68%. OPD WAITING TIME PERCEPTION OF PATIENTS For understanding perception of patients on OPD waiting time, VOC was collected from 150 patients in the OPD. Questionnaire for OPD Patients: 1. Did you take an appointment for OPD visit? a) Yesb) No 2. How did you get the appointment? Through telephone or direct? 3. Are you satisfied with the way your phone call was handled? a)Yesb)No 4. What instruction was given by the counter staff at the time of appointment/arrival? 5. How did you feel at the reception? a) Very good b)Goodc)Badd)Very bad 6. How much time it took at the reception, to attend you? a)0-10 minsb)10-20 minsc)20-30 minsd)>30 mins 7. At what time you were asked to report at the counter and when did you reach the OPD reception? 8. Did any staff brief you regarding the workflow in OPD? a)Yesb)No 9. How long you have been waiting in OPD? a)0-10 minsb)10-20 minsc)20-30 minsd)>30 mins 10. Did any information regarding waiting time in OPD was given to you, at the time of appointment? a)Yesb)No 11. How much time it took for you to interact with doctor after your arrival? a)0-10 minsb)10-20 minsc)20-30 minsd)>30 mins 12. Are you aware of the existing appointment system in FMRI? a)Yesb)No 13. What is your perception on waiting time in the hospital? 14. What would you suggest to reduce waiting time in OPD? 15. Any other suggestions? How long have you been waiting in the OPD for Consultation (Observations): It was observed that 20% patients take prior appointment to consult the doctor whereas 80% patients come Walk- in to consult the doctor. Fig 4: Appointment for OPD Visit 67% patients who come to consult the doctor take prior appointment on the telephone whereas 33% comes directly to get the appointment. Fig 5: Appointment System It was found that 75% of the patients were satisfied with the telephonic call handled whereas 25% patients weren’t satisfied. Fig 6: Satisfaction Level As per as the behavior of the reception of the staff is concerned, it was found that out of 150 patients, 20 patients felt very good behavior; 90 patients felt good, 25 patients felt bad and 15 patients felt very bad behavior from the side of reception staff. Fig 7: Reception Staff’s behavior When process flow was observed to capture the waiting time, it was found that out of 150 patients, 50 patients were attended within 10 minutes; 70 patients were attended within 10-20 minutes; 25 patients were attended within 20-30 minutes and 5 patients were attended more than 30 minutes. Fig. 8: Time taken to attend the patients 75% patients felt that they were briefed regarding workflow in OPD whereas 25% patients felt that they weren’t. Fig.9: Briefing Regarding Workflow in OPD Regarding waiting time it was that out of 150 patients, 60 patients had to wait up to 10 minutes; 5 patients had to wait within 10-20 minutes, 15 patients had to wait within 20-30 minutes and 30 patients had to wait more than 30 minutes. Fig. 10: Waiting Time in OPD 93% patients felt that they were well informed regarding waiting time in OPD whereas 7% patients felt that they weren’t informed well. Fig. 11: Information regarding Waiting Time As per as interaction with doctor after arrival is concerned, out of 150 patients 98 patients interacted within 10 minutes, 12 patients interacted within 10-20 minutes, 26 patients interacted within 20-30 minutes and 14 patients interacted more than 30 minutes. Fig. 12: Time taken for consultation to doctor 51% patients were found aware regarding existing appointment system in FMRI whereas 49% patients were found unaware. Fig. 13: Awareness regarding appointment system in FMRI MEASURE This phase refers to the analysis of the existing system with various measurement techniques for the defects and levels of perfection that exist. In this step, accurate metrics have to be used to define a baseline for further improvements. This helps in understanding whether any progress has been achieved when process improvements are implemented. To identify High level process map the SIPOC has been done. Table 2: SIPOC The various processes involved in the particular project have been described in detail in flow chart: Fig.14: Process Flow Chart NO YES Revisit New Visit Value Analysis: A value analysis was done based on the flow chart and the processes were categorized into Value added, Operational Value Added Activity and Non Value Added Activities. Table.3: Value Analysis ANALYZE The analyze phase was undertaken to determine any disparity that may exist in the goals set and the current performance levels achieved. The understanding of the relationship between cause and effect is necessary to bring about any improvements, if needed. Brainstorming session was carried out and all the causes were listed in the affinity diagram. The Fish Bone Diagram was prepared. The causes which got from the brain storming session have been segregated into non controllable causes, direct improvement causes and controllable and likely causes. Its fish bone diagram for controllable causes only. Table.4: Analysis Phase CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM: Fig.15: Cause and effect diagram Causes were then ranked on the basis of severity and occurrence as per criteria given. Table.5: Ranking of causes on the basis of severity and occurrence A modified Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) were carried out for Occurrence and Severity only. The top Risk Priority Number was considered for further analysis, using 5WHY. Single Registration counter Time taken to process blood test only Time taken to process blood test and other Investigations. DATA ANALYSIS As per analysis of data, following observations were made: Month August- As per observations, Average Time = 13 minutes. No. of patients seen >15 minutes = approx. 13 % of no. of patients seen > 15 minutes = 25.48% Fig. 16: Observation in Month August Month September- It was observed, Average Time = 17 minutes. No. of patients seen >15 minutes = approx. 17 % of no. of patients seen > 15 minutes = 32.70% Fig. 17: Observation in Month September It was noticed that there was slight increase in the average time, no. of patients seen more than 15 minutes and %age of no. of patients seen more than 15 minutes. The main reasons behind it are: Delay in Doctors’ in time( e.g. Doctor in OT/ On Rounds) Delay in Investigations. Long consultation time. Month October- It was observed, Average Time = 15 minutes. No. of patients seen >15 minutes = approx. 16 % of no. of patients seen > 15 minutes = 30.19%. Fig. 18: Observation in Month October In this month slight improvement was observed as the average time, no. of patients seen more than 15 minutes and its %age decreased slightly. This was due to: Doctors requested to be on time so that patients can’t feel inconvenient. Complete consultation on time. COMPARISON AMONG MONTHS AUGUST, SEPTEMBER OCTOBER: Table.5: Comparison among Months August, September October It was observed when compared the data of three months that: Average waiting time was decreased followed by slight increase. Maximum time for the consultation has decreased within three months. Minimum time was approximately zero in these three months. Fig. 19: Comparison among months August, September October IMPROVE Improvements in existing systems are necessary to bring the organization towards achievement of the organization goals. Creative development of processes and tools brings about a new lease on life for the organizations processes and takes them nearer to organizational objectives. Various project management and planning tools can be used to implement these new techniques and processes. Appropriate usage of statistical tools is important to measure the data, which is necessary to understand improvements done and any shortcomings that may exist. The solutions with their respective Causes are shown below: Table.6: Causes Solutions CONTROL Control phase is the last step in the DMAIC method. This phase is about sustaining the changes made in the Improve phase to guarantee lasting results. The best controls are MONITORING, appropriate CHECKS and balance the quality system for the long run. Recommendations Segregated OPD counters for billing. Separated nursing station for the departments to reduce waiting time. OPD schedule to be blocked for the time duration when the doctors are in procedure or on rounds. Time slot for appointments to be increased from 10 to 20 minutes per doctor. Conclusion: Significant reduction in waiting time was achieved in the outpatient services of the department. Doctors were on time in OPD to reduce the delay in the OPD. Patients were coordinated well to the doctors. Further data analysis will help to monitor and control the waiting time and process flow in the OPD.

Relations Between Women In The 18th And 19th Centuries. Essay -- essay

Relations between women in the 18th and 19th centuries. Theme: Relations between women in the 18th and 19th centuries. Thesis: Relationships between women in the nineteenth century America created a web of love and support for women. Mothers and daughters, sisters and friends from childhood formed emotional and sometimes physical bonds that lasted lifetimes. These ties were acknowledged and easily accepted in their societies. Many women survived unthinkable hardships such as geographical isolation, child birth, and loss of children because of the unconditional love found in their relations with other women. I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction A. Female friendship of 19th century not really studied before B. Abundance of evidence suggests very strong emotional ties between women.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. All types of relationships are suggested from sisterly love to passion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  D. In this world men are hardly noted II.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Defining and analyzing these relations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. Question of method and interpretation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. How to view same sex relations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1.Psychopathology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2.dichotomy between normal and abnormal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. Viewing within a cultural and social setting   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  D. Based on the diaries of women from 35 families from 1760s to 1880s   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1.Represents brood range of women   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2.Middle class III.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sensual and platonic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. Sarah Butler Wister and Jeannie Field Musgrove   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Met while families vacationed; spent 2 years   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  together at boarding school   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2. throughout life wrote to eachother talking of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  their deep affection and their anguish when apart   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3. Marriage brought physical separation but nor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ... ... friends and relatives were present through the entire process. VII. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The relationships between women during this era was core to their lives and survival. Without the love, support, and rituals surrounding their daily lives together, many of the women would not have survived the hardships that often presented themselves in life. Point of Analysis: I feel that the author was a bit long winded in her explanations of some things. There are many things that she repeats. I also feel that she could have presented more about the lives of men. After reading this, I wonder what the men did all day and if they had relationships like this with their friends and male kin. It is a great essay and does show vividly the lives of women during this time Point of Synthesis: This article really helped me to understand the women during this time much more. To see their lives on a much more personal level, and how they socialized really creates a deeper and more personal understanding of women here. Connecting this with their political lives, regional, and religious helps to make the circle complete and create a true understanding of women during this era.

Organic Molecules Challenge :: essays research papers

Organic Molecules Challenge Silicon's Reign as King of Semiconductors There is a revolution fomenting in the semiconductor industry. It may take 30 years or more to reach perfection, but when it does the advance may be so great that today's computers will be little more than calculators compared to what will come after. The revolution is called molecular electronics, and its goal is to depose silicon as king of the computer chip and put carbon in its place. The perpetrators are a few clever chemists trying to use pigment, proteins, polymers, and other organic molecules to carry out the same task that microscopic patterns of silicon and metal do now. For years these researchers worked in secret, mainly at their blackboards, plotting and planning. Now they are beginning to conduct small forays in the laboratory, and their few successes to date lead them to believe they were on the right track. "We have a long way to go before carbon-based electronics replace silicon-based electronics, but we can see now that we hope to revolutionize computer design and performance," said Robert R. Birge, a professor of chemistry, Carnegie- Mellon University, Pittsburgh. "Now it's only a matter of time, hard work, and some luck before molecular electronics start having a noticeable impact." Molecular electronics is so named because it uses molecules to act as the "wires" and "switches" of computer chips. Wires, may someday be replaced by polymers that conduct electricity, such as polyacetylene and polyphenylenesulfide. Another candidate might be organometallic compounds such as porphyrins and phthalocyanines which also conduct electricity. When crystallized, these flat molecules stack like pancakes, and metal ions in their centers line up with one another to form a one-dimensional wire. Many organic molecules can exist in two distinct stable states that differ in some measurable property and are interconvertable. These could be switches of molecular electronics. For example, bacteriorhodpsin, a bacterial pigment, exists in two optical states: one state absorbs green light, the other orange. Shinning green light on the green-absorbing state converts it into the orange state and vice versa. Birge and his coworkers have developed high density memory drives using bacteriorhodopsin. Although the idea of using organic molecules may seem far-fetched, it happens every day throughout nature. "Electron transport in photosynthesis one of the most important energy generating systems in nature, is a real-world example of what we're trying to do," said Phil Seiden, manager of molecular science, IBM, Yorkstown Heights, N.Y. Birge, who heads the Center for Molecular Electronics at Carnegie-Mellon, said two factors are driving this developing revolution, more speed and less space. "Semiconductor chip designers are always trying to cram more electronic

Analysis of Propaganda: First Theories of Decoding and Effects Essay

1) assumptions In this paper I discuss several assigned articles with regard to the assumptions, focus, time and space contexts, stated purpose, and comparison between certain articles. Except for one article, all articles in this weekly reading are assumed to use post-structuralist paradigm. In their article, Lobao & Meyer (2001) encourage the readers to use combination of macro, meso, and micro approach in understanding agricultural transformation rather than only macro approach. For example, they urge the Human Ecology Theory (PEP), which is micro theory about individual’s adaptation to the dynamic of environment like population density, culture and technologies, and bio-physical environment. They criticize the PEP paradigm as heavily oriented in structural approach, neglecting the dynamic of socio-psychological factors of individual and social practices. For Lobao & Meyer, micro level of the household dynamic is crucial to understand the survival mechanism of the smallholder farmers to seek â€Å"strategic business behavior† (p. 112). Moreover, gender division, particularly with regard to the struggle of women in on-farm and off-farm activities is important. The Lobao and Meyer’s article also highlights the regional context of agri-related policies, such as agricultural loans which tend to be biased to certain ethnic groups, a fact that may be overlooked by the PEP. For comparison, Bernstein’s article is also in similar vein, in which he looks at the case of Green Revolution in India as not â€Å"resource neutral† (p. 61), by giving more access to the richer farmers to any program innovation packages (like credits, supply of inputs, and information). Lobao & Meyer’s article’s on famers’ action in politic to defend their interests ... ...le. Similarly, but with different case, Pechllaner and Otero (2008) describe the recent case resistance of the Mexican toward the introduction of biotech foods by international companies via trade liberalization. To sum up, while most of the articles have similar post-structural paradigm --which assume that local and regional factors are crucial factors in understanding agricultural transition— the focus of study, time-space contexts, and purpose of study, are different. The articles provide excellent perspectives and various examples in different time and across geographical boundaries regarding the needs of assessing the complexity of agricultural stakeholders, particularly the struggle of farmers as individual, household, or community (including the food consumers), to adapt with the change of external forces, which influence their livelihoods and interests.

Estimated Heat Distribution by Convection in Water Essay

Introduction This report assesses the distribution of heat by convection in water to estimate the heat conductivity of water. The transfer of heat from a heating coil to a fluid is conduction but the heat transfer within the fluid is convection. This is basically fluid flow of particles arising from nature, heat, chemical or kinetics. The distribution of heat is assessed with various factors introduced. In this case a magnetic stirrer and a motor. This report presents an estimate of the effect of free and forced convention on the distribution of heat in water. Experimental method The apparatus were arranged as shown in fig. 1. A beaker of five litre capacity was places on a motor, four litres (4L) of cold water was put in a beaker. A heating coil and three thermometers were placed at various depths in the beaker of water and their various distances from the base of the beaker were recorded. Power was supplied to the motor and heating coil and at intervals of four minutes each; the temperatures on all three thermometers were read simultaneously. After four successful readings, the electricity supply was disconnected and the ambient temperature was recorded. This same procedure was repeated twice, the first with a magnetic stirrer and the next time without the magnetic stirrer but the motor operating. Distance from base (m) Temperature (C) Heating Coil 0.08 – T1 0.02 24 T 2 0.09 24 T 3 0.12 24 Table 1. Distances of apparatus and initial temperature readings of the water. Table 1 shows the ambient temperature readings collected before the experiment was carried out. It also shows the positions of the heating coil and thermometers from the base of the of the beaker. Results The time was kept in minutes to measure the intervals at which readings were taken. The temperature of the water was measured with thermometers in degreed Celsius and recalculated in degrees Kelvin and the positions of the heating coil and thermometers were also measured in meters. Time (minutes) T1 (0.02m) T2 (0.09m) T3 (0.12m) 0 24 24 24 4 24 28 32 8 24 39 42 12 24 46 49 16 24 54 56 Table 2: Free convection Time (minutes) T1 (0.02m) T2 (0.09m) T3 (0.12m) 0 20 20 20 4 26 26 26 8 32 32 32 12 37 37 37 16 42 42 42 Table 3: Forced convection (stirrer and motor) Time (minutes) T1 (0.02m) T2 (0.09m) T3 (0.12m) 0 20 20 20 4 20 29 32 8 21 36 38 12 21 44 46 16 22 51 54 Table 4: Forced convection (motor only) Fig 2: Free convection Fig 3: Forced convection (stirrer and motor) Fig 4: Forced convection (motor only) The readings and results derived from the experiment are being used to calculate an estimate amount of energy input and compare it with the theoretical value. Q represents energy input represents the power input t represents the duration for which the water was heated at 220v = 300w, but since 240v was used corrected value of = 300 240220 = 358 w = 16 minutes60 = 960s = 327.3960 = 314208J = 314.2 KJ Experiment 1. Free convection Assuming density of water to be 1000kg/m3 Cp = 4.18KJ/kgK = 24 – 24 = 0 = 54 – 24 = 30 = 56 – 24 = 32 = 4/34.18(0 +30 +32) = 345.55KJ Experiment 2. Forced convection (stirrer and motor) = 42 – 20 =22 = 42 – 20 =22 = 42 – 20 =22 = 4/34.18(22 +22 +22) = 367.84KJ Experiment 3. Forced convection (motor only) = 22 – 20 = 2 = 51 – 20 = 31 = 54 – 20 = 34 = 4/34.18(2 +31 +34) = 373.41KJ Estimates of errors involved in this experiment are a follows:- Time = 1 second in 60 seconds Length = 0.01 meters of 0.1 meters Temperature = 1 C Discussion In the experiment that involved forced convection from both the motor and stirrer the heat distribution was better and more accurate. This can be confirmed by the comparison of the energy input calculated based on experimental values with the energy input calculated based on the theoretical values. Readings to support this is shown in Table 3 and fig 3. A poor distribution of heat occurred in the first experiment where the water was heated freely. This is represented in Table 2 and figure 2 and by comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the energy inputs. In experiment 3 where only the motor was used the graph 3 and figure 4 shows a better distribution of heat compared to experiment 1. Conclusion In a freely heated body of water, higher temperatures are taken from closer to the surface and lower temperatures towards the bottom. With introduction of kinetic energy from the stirrer and motor, the velocity of fluid flow increased thereby increasing the rate of heat transfer and the even distribution of heat through the water. This shows that water is a poor conductor of heat energy if heated with free convection.